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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Torus</span></h1>
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<p>Ein <b>Torus</b> (<a href="Plural" title="Plural">Plural</a> <i>Tori</i>, von <span style="font-style:normal;font-weight:normal"><a href="Latein" title="Latein">lateinisch</a></span> <span lang="la-Latn" style="font-style:italic">torus</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ist ein <a href="Mathematisches_Objekt" title="Mathematisches Objekt">mathematisches Objekt</a> aus der <a href="Geometrie" title="Geometrie">Geometrie</a> und der <a href="Topologie_(Mathematik)" title="Topologie (Mathematik)">Topologie</a>. Er ist eine wulstartig geformte <a href="Fl%C3%A4che_(Mathematik)" title="Fläche (Mathematik)">Fläche</a> mit einem Loch, ähnlich der Gestalt eines <a href="Rettungsring" title="Rettungsring">Rettungsrings</a>, <a href="Fahrradschlauch" title="Fahrradschlauch">Fahrradschlauchs</a> oder <a href="Donut" title="Donut">Donuts</a>. Auch ein <a href="O-Ring" title="O-Ring">O-Ring</a> (<span style="font-style:normal;font-weight:normal"><a href="Franz%C3%B6sische_Sprache" title="Französische Sprache">französisch</a></span> <span lang="fr-Latn" style="font-style:italic">Joint torique</span>, wörtlich: torische Dichtung) hat die Form eines Torus.
</p><p>Beispiele für im <a href="Dreidimensional" class="mw-redirect" title="Dreidimensional">dreidimensionalen</a> <a href="Raum_(Mathematik)" title="Raum (Mathematik)">Raum</a> eingebettete Tori sind die Rotationstori. Rotationstori sind <a href="Rotationsfl%C3%A4che" title="Rotationsfläche">Rotationsflächen</a>, die man erhält, indem man einen <a href="Kreis" title="Kreis">Kreis</a> um eine Achse rotieren lässt, die in der Kreisebene liegt und den Kreis nicht schneidet. Falls man nicht nur die Kreislinie, sondern die gesamte <a href="Kreisfl%C3%A4che" class="mw-redirect" title="Kreisfläche">Kreisfläche</a> rotieren lässt, erhält man einen <a href="Volltorus" title="Volltorus">Volltorus</a>.
</p><p>Anders ausgedrückt wird ein Rotationstorus aus derjenigen <a href="Menge_(Mathematik)" title="Menge (Mathematik)">Menge</a> an <a href="Punkt_(Geometrie)" title="Punkt (Geometrie)">Punkten</a> gebildet, die von einer <a href="Kreis" title="Kreis">Kreislinie</a> mit Radius <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R}">
<semantics>
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<mi>R</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4b0bfb3769bf24d80e15374dc37b0441e2616e33.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R}" loading="lazy"></span> den festen Abstand <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r}" loading="lazy"></span> mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r<R}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bda3f5af44b388094e37b9ddeb9524a3433ef30c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.911ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r<R}" loading="lazy"></span> haben.
</p>
<p>Ein Torus kann auch durch Identifizieren der Seiten eines Parallelogramms konstruiert werden. Dabei wird die rechte Kante des <a href="Parallelogramm" title="Parallelogramm">Parallelogramms</a> mit seiner linken Kante und die obere mit der unteren Kante verheftet. Diese <a href="Topologie_(Mathematik)" title="Topologie (Mathematik)">Topologie</a> benutzen auch viele Computerspiele: Verlässt ein Spielobjekt auf einer Seite das Spielfeld, so taucht es auf der gegenüberliegenden Seite wieder auf.
</p><p>Beide Konstruktionen sind Spezialfälle der allgemeinen mathematischen Definition, die einen Torus als das <a href="Topologisches_Produkt" class="mw-redirect" title="Topologisches Produkt">topologische Produkt</a> zweier Kreise definiert. Dieser Begriff spielt in zahlreichen Gebieten der <a href="Mathematik" title="Mathematik">Mathematik</a> eine Rolle, neben <a href="Topologie_(Mathematik)" title="Topologie (Mathematik)">Topologie</a> und <a href="Differentialgeometrie" title="Differentialgeometrie">Differentialgeometrie</a> ist er unter anderem in der <a href="Fourier-Analysis" title="Fourier-Analysis">Fourier-Analysis</a>, der Theorie <a href="Dynamisches_System" title="Dynamisches System">dynamischer Systeme</a> (<a href="Invariante_(Mathematik)" title="Invariante (Mathematik)">invariante</a> Tori in der <a href="Himmelsmechanik" title="Himmelsmechanik">Himmelsmechanik</a>), der <a href="Funktionentheorie" title="Funktionentheorie">Funktionentheorie</a> und der Theorie <a href="Elliptische_Kurve" title="Elliptische Kurve">elliptischer Kurven</a> von Bedeutung.
</p><p>Rotationstori liefern eine konkrete <a href="Rotationssymmetrisch" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotationssymmetrisch">rotationssymmetrische</a> Realisierung dieser Fläche im <a href="Dreidimensional" class="mw-redirect" title="Dreidimensional">dreidimensionalen</a> <a href="Euklidischer_Raum" title="Euklidischer Raum">euklidischen Raum</a>. Von besonderer Wichtigkeit für viele Anwendungen in theoretischer <a href="Mathematik" title="Mathematik">Mathematik</a> und <a href="Physik" title="Physik">Physik</a> sind sogenannte flache Tori und ihre Einbettung in den <a href="Vierdimensional" class="mw-redirect" title="Vierdimensional">vierdimensionalen</a> <a href="Raum_(Mathematik)" title="Raum (Mathematik)">Raum</a>. Diese haben die <a href="Kr%C3%BCmmung" title="Krümmung">Krümmung</a> null und die maximal mögliche <a href="Symmetrie_(Geometrie)" title="Symmetrie (Geometrie)">Symmetrie</a>.
</p><p>Der Torus ist eine <a href="Zweidimensional" class="mw-redirect" title="Zweidimensional">zweidimensionale</a> <a href="Fl%C3%A4che_(Mathematik)" title="Fläche (Mathematik)">Fläche</a>. Allgemeiner betrachtet man in der <a href="Mathematik" title="Mathematik">Mathematik</a> auch den <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Torus, eine den zweidimensionalen Torus verallgemeinernde <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-dimensionale <a href="Mannigfaltigkeit" title="Mannigfaltigkeit">Mannigfaltigkeit</a>. Davon abweichend finden sich in der deutschsprachigen Literatur gelegentlich auch die Bezeichnungen Doppeltorus, Tripeltorus etc. für Flächen mit zwei, drei und mehr Löchern.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Volumen">Volumen</h2></div>
<p>Das <a href="Volumen" title="Volumen">Volumen</a> des Volltorus, der vom Torus ummantelt wird, lässt sich als <a href="Volumenintegral" title="Volumenintegral">Volumenintegral</a> über die <a href="Funktionaldeterminante" title="Funktionaldeterminante">Jacobi-Determinante</a> (die <a href="Jacobi-Matrix" title="Jacobi-Matrix">Determinante der Funktionalmatrix</a>) berechnen. Die <a href="Jacobi-Matrix" title="Jacobi-Matrix">Jacobi-Matrix</a> zur Parametrisierung des Torus lässt sich wie folgt angeben:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle J_{f}={\frac {\partial \left(x,y,z\right)}{\partial \left(r,t,p\right)}}={\begin{pmatrix}\partial _{r}x&\partial _{t}x&\partial _{p}x\\\partial _{r}y&\partial _{t}y&\partial _{p}y\\\partial _{r}z&\partial _{t}z&\partial _{p}z\\\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}\cos(t)\cos(p)&-R\sin(t)-r\sin(t)\cos(p)&-r\cos(t)\sin(p)\\\sin(t)\cos(p)&R\cos(t)+r\cos(t)\cos(p)&-r\sin(t)\sin(p)\\\sin(p)&0&r\cos(p)\end{pmatrix}}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle J_{f}={\frac {\partial \left(x,y,z\right)}{\partial \left(r,t,p\right)}}={\begin{pmatrix}\partial _{r}x&\partial _{t}x&\partial _{p}x\\\partial _{r}y&\partial _{t}y&\partial _{p}y\\\partial _{r}z&\partial _{t}z&\partial _{p}z\\\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}\cos(t)\cos(p)&-R\sin(t)-r\sin(t)\cos(p)&-r\cos(t)\sin(p)\\\sin(t)\cos(p)&R\cos(t)+r\cos(t)\cos(p)&-r\sin(t)\sin(p)\\\sin(p)&0&r\cos(p)\end{pmatrix}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a1c4380ad22bdcb5d975fe233229dd0e76fc29eb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.338ex; width:104.376ex; height:9.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle J_{f}={\frac {\partial \left(x,y,z\right)}{\partial \left(r,t,p\right)}}={\begin{pmatrix}\partial _{r}x&\partial _{t}x&\partial _{p}x\\\partial _{r}y&\partial _{t}y&\partial _{p}y\\\partial _{r}z&\partial _{t}z&\partial _{p}z\\\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}\cos(t)\cos(p)&-R\sin(t)-r\sin(t)\cos(p)&-r\cos(t)\sin(p)\\\sin(t)\cos(p)&R\cos(t)+r\cos(t)\cos(p)&-r\sin(t)\sin(p)\\\sin(p)&0&r\cos(p)\end{pmatrix}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Daraus folgt:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \det(J_{f})=r\cdot \left(r\cos(p)+R\right)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">det</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>J</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>f</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>R</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \det(J_{f})=r\cdot \left(r\cos(p)+R\right)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bd0ee310724d07495a527ba7677df78278709db2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:27.231ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \det(J_{f})=r\cdot \left(r\cos(p)+R\right)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Die <a href="Funktionaldeterminante" title="Funktionaldeterminante">Funktionaldeterminante</a> ist hier also gleich der <a href="Norm_(Mathematik)" title="Norm (Mathematik)">Norm</a> des Flächennormalenvektors.
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V=\int _{V}\mathrm {d} V=\int _{\Gamma }\det(J_{f})\ \mathrm {d} \Gamma =\int _{0}^{2\pi }\int _{0}^{2\pi }\int _{0}^{r}\left(Rr+r^{2}\cos(p)\right)\ \mathrm {d} r\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=2\pi ^{2}r^{2}R}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>V</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>V</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>V</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">Γ<!-- Γ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">det</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>J</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>f</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi mathvariant="normal">Γ<!-- Γ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>R</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>r</mi>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>p</mi>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<msup>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V=\int _{V}\mathrm {d} V=\int _{\Gamma }\det(J_{f})\ \mathrm {d} \Gamma =\int _{0}^{2\pi }\int _{0}^{2\pi }\int _{0}^{r}\left(Rr+r^{2}\cos(p)\right)\ \mathrm {d} r\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=2\pi ^{2}r^{2}R}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/016b0e16e52e5ae648be5ed957507265a5df769c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:80.531ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V=\int _{V}\mathrm {d} V=\int _{\Gamma }\det(J_{f})\ \mathrm {d} \Gamma =\int _{0}^{2\pi }\int _{0}^{2\pi }\int _{0}^{r}\left(Rr+r^{2}\cos(p)\right)\ \mathrm {d} r\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=2\pi ^{2}r^{2}R}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Man erhält also für das Volumen des Volltorus <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V=2\pi ^{2}r^{2}R}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>V</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<msup>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V=2\pi ^{2}r^{2}R}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ad200b46057ffcaffd614154e528ab265529d123.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:12.303ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V=2\pi ^{2}r^{2}R}" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p><p>Die <a href="Formel" title="Formel">Formel</a> für das <a href="Volumen" title="Volumen">Volumen</a> lässt sich so interpretieren, dass die <a href="Kreisfl%C3%A4che" class="mw-redirect" title="Kreisfläche">Kreisfläche</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A_{r}=\pi r^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A_{r}=\pi r^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b63e458c6f60189747110a339ffe9e372ad0bd7d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.25ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A_{r}=\pi r^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> mit dem <a href="Umfang_(Geometrie)" title="Umfang (Geometrie)">Umfang</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle U_{R}=2\pi R}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>U</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>R</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle U_{R}=2\pi R}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/dde91f3a733c2212a30fe98f26bf875e83cd66bc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:10.424ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle U_{R}=2\pi R}" loading="lazy"></span> <a href="Multiplizieren" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiplizieren">multipliziert</a> wird (siehe <a href="Rotationsk%C3%B6rper#Zweite_Regel" title="Rotationskörper">Zweite Guldinsche Regel</a>). Dies kann man zum Verständnis in Analogie zum <a href="Zylinder_(Geometrie)" title="Zylinder (Geometrie)">Zylindervolumen</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{zyl}}=\pi r^{2}l}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>V</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>zyl</mtext>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>l</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{zyl}}=\pi r^{2}l}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a335aa5bbfc9d986531cb6ec4df921e00986a660.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:10.869ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{zyl}}=\pi r^{2}l}" loading="lazy"></span> setzen. Mit dem <a href="Fl%C3%A4cheninhalt" title="Flächeninhalt">Flächeninhalt</a> der Oberfläche verhält es sich genauso, hier werden die Umfänge <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle U_{r}=2\pi r}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>U</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle U_{r}=2\pi r}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e65cd73f9d4499acf424008fa5963b2d7410a58f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.203ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle U_{r}=2\pi r}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle U_{R}=2\pi R}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>U</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>R</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle U_{R}=2\pi R}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/dde91f3a733c2212a30fe98f26bf875e83cd66bc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:10.424ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle U_{R}=2\pi R}" loading="lazy"></span> miteinander multipliziert (siehe <a href="Rotationsk%C3%B6rper#Erste_Regel" title="Rotationskörper">Erste Guldinsche Regel</a>). Dies steht ebenfalls in Analogie zur <a href="Zylinder_(Geometrie)" title="Zylinder (Geometrie)">Zylinderoberfläche</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle O_{\text{zyl}}=2\pi rl}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>O</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>zyl</mtext>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>l</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle O_{\text{zyl}}=2\pi rl}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/58e4ad04e9abd0d9f200229c8ef0458f68271655.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:11.396ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle O_{\text{zyl}}=2\pi rl}" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p><p>Betrachtet man nur den inneren Teil des Torus, der von der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse einen <a href="Abstand" title="Abstand">Abstand</a> kleiner gleich <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4b0bfb3769bf24d80e15374dc37b0441e2616e33.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R}" loading="lazy"></span> hat, ergibt sich das <a href="Volumen" title="Volumen">Volumen</a>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \int _{0}^{2\pi }\int _{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}^{\tfrac {3\pi }{2}}\int _{0}^{r}\left(Rr+r^{2}\cos(p)\right)\ \mathrm {d} r\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=\pi r^{2}\left(\pi R-{\tfrac {4r}{3}}\right)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mn>3</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>R</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>r</mi>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>p</mi>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mi>R</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mn>4</mn>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<mn>3</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \int _{0}^{2\pi }\int _{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}^{\tfrac {3\pi }{2}}\int _{0}^{r}\left(Rr+r^{2}\cos(p)\right)\ \mathrm {d} r\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=\pi r^{2}\left(\pi R-{\tfrac {4r}{3}}\right)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d2bd3fe032540f5aa5b3fee68728cd1778eceff3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.338ex; width:57.815ex; height:8.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \int _{0}^{2\pi }\int _{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}^{\tfrac {3\pi }{2}}\int _{0}^{r}\left(Rr+r^{2}\cos(p)\right)\ \mathrm {d} r\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=\pi r^{2}\left(\pi R-{\tfrac {4r}{3}}\right)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Der äußere Teil des Torus, der von der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse einen <a href="Abstand" title="Abstand">Abstand</a> größer gleich <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4b0bfb3769bf24d80e15374dc37b0441e2616e33.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R}" loading="lazy"></span> hat, hat das <a href="Volumen" title="Volumen">Volumen</a>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \int _{0}^{2\pi }\int _{\tfrac {3\pi }{2}}^{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}\int _{0}^{r}\left(Rr+r^{2}\cos(p)\right)\ \mathrm {d} r\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=\pi r^{2}\left(\pi R+{\tfrac {4r}{3}}\right)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mn>3</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>R</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>r</mi>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>p</mi>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mi>R</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mn>4</mn>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<mn>3</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \int _{0}^{2\pi }\int _{\tfrac {3\pi }{2}}^{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}\int _{0}^{r}\left(Rr+r^{2}\cos(p)\right)\ \mathrm {d} r\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=\pi r^{2}\left(\pi R+{\tfrac {4r}{3}}\right)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5cd30b48a3fd40ca1896ebf70078cdb2a4f3a5e9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.338ex; width:56.993ex; height:7.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \int _{0}^{2\pi }\int _{\tfrac {3\pi }{2}}^{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}\int _{0}^{r}\left(Rr+r^{2}\cos(p)\right)\ \mathrm {d} r\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=\pi r^{2}\left(\pi R+{\tfrac {4r}{3}}\right)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oberfläche"><span id="Oberfl.C3.A4che"></span>Oberfläche</h2></div>
<p>Die Oberfläche des Torus mit der obigen <a href="Parameterdarstellung" title="Parameterdarstellung">Parameterdarstellung</a> ist
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A_{O}=4\pi ^{2}rR}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>O</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<msup>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A_{O}=4\pi ^{2}rR}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/03e1ba43a1bce48950b3c3abdcf88719dcaaf7cb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:12.691ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A_{O}=4\pi ^{2}rR}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Diese <a href="Formel" title="Formel">Formel</a> lässt sich entweder mit der <a href="Rotationsk%C3%B6rper#Erste_Regel" title="Rotationskörper">Ersten Guldinschen Regel</a> herleiten aus
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A_{O}=2\pi r\cdot 2\pi R}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>O</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A_{O}=2\pi r\cdot 2\pi R}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/67036dabc339b71549bbaa2534ea426438279cba.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:15.808ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A_{O}=2\pi r\cdot 2\pi R}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>oder mit Hilfe des <a href="Oberfl%C3%A4chenintegral" title="Oberflächenintegral">Oberflächenintegrals</a>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A_{O}=\iint \mathrm {d} A=\int _{t=0}^{2\pi }\int _{p=0}^{2\pi }r(R+r\cos(p))\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>O</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>∬<!-- ∬ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>A</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>p</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>R</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>p</mi>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A_{O}=\iint \mathrm {d} A=\int _{t=0}^{2\pi }\int _{p=0}^{2\pi }r(R+r\cos(p))\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/041b1f9c4f5b518c51704da61532f41d1a756ccc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:46.707ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A_{O}=\iint \mathrm {d} A=\int _{t=0}^{2\pi }\int _{p=0}^{2\pi }r(R+r\cos(p))\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>berechnen. Dabei ist <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} A=r(R+r\cos(p))\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>A</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>R</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>p</mi>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} A=r(R+r\cos(p))\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/23a2a24f76e8851a5962221574bab278c6f2b7c8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:26.877ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} A=r(R+r\cos(p))\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t}" loading="lazy"></span> das <a href="Funktionaldeterminante" title="Funktionaldeterminante">Oberflächenelement</a> des Torus in der obigen <a href="Parameterdarstellung" title="Parameterdarstellung">Parameterdarstellung</a>.
</p><p>Der Torus <a href="Mannigfaltigkeit_mit_Rand" title="Mannigfaltigkeit mit Rand">berandet</a> einen 3-dimensionalen <a href="Volltorus" title="Volltorus">Volltorus</a>. Das <a href="Volltorus#Volumen_des_Volltorus" title="Volltorus">Volumen des Volltorus</a> beträgt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V=2\pi ^{2}r^{2}R}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>V</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<msup>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V=2\pi ^{2}r^{2}R}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ad200b46057ffcaffd614154e528ab265529d123.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:12.303ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V=2\pi ^{2}r^{2}R}" loading="lazy"></span> (siehe <a href="Rotationsk%C3%B6rper#Zweite_Regel" title="Rotationskörper">Zweiten Guldinschen Regel</a>).
</p><p>Betrachtet man nur den inneren Teil des Torus, der von der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse einen <a href="Abstand" title="Abstand">Abstand</a> kleiner gleich <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4b0bfb3769bf24d80e15374dc37b0441e2616e33.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R}" loading="lazy"></span> hat, ergibt sich die Oberfläche
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \int _{t=0}^{2\pi }\int _{p={\tfrac {\pi }{2}}}^{\tfrac {3\pi }{2}}r(R+r\cos(p))\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=2\pi r\left(\pi R-2r\right)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>p</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mn>3</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>R</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>p</mi>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mi>R</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \int _{t=0}^{2\pi }\int _{p={\tfrac {\pi }{2}}}^{\tfrac {3\pi }{2}}r(R+r\cos(p))\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=2\pi r\left(\pi R-2r\right)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8686814d7dfd1cc75b1823529ccc260b6ad303ca.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.338ex; width:48.371ex; height:8.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \int _{t=0}^{2\pi }\int _{p={\tfrac {\pi }{2}}}^{\tfrac {3\pi }{2}}r(R+r\cos(p))\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=2\pi r\left(\pi R-2r\right)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Der äußere Teil des Torus, der von der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse einen <a href="Abstand" title="Abstand">Abstand</a> größer gleich <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4b0bfb3769bf24d80e15374dc37b0441e2616e33.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R}" loading="lazy"></span> hat, hat die Oberfläche
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \int _{t=0}^{2\pi }\int _{p={\tfrac {3\pi }{2}}}^{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}r(R+r\cos(p))\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=2\pi r\left(\pi R+2r\right)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>p</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mn>3</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>R</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>p</mi>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mi>R</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \int _{t=0}^{2\pi }\int _{p={\tfrac {3\pi }{2}}}^{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}r(R+r\cos(p))\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=2\pi r\left(\pi R+2r\right)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a8381a727d02fe2d8457b34afd798679c6446fe0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.338ex; width:49.193ex; height:7.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \int _{t=0}^{2\pi }\int _{p={\tfrac {3\pi }{2}}}^{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}r(R+r\cos(p))\ \mathrm {d} p\ \mathrm {d} t=2\pi r\left(\pi R+2r\right)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Torus_als_Rotationsfläche"><span id="Torus_als_Rotationsfl.C3.A4che"></span>Torus als Rotationsfläche</h2></div>
<p>Ein Rotationstorus ist eine <a href="Rotationsfl%C3%A4che" title="Rotationsfläche">Rotationsfläche</a>, die durch <a href="Drehung" title="Drehung">Rotation</a> eines <a href="Kreis" title="Kreis">Kreises</a> um eine in der Kreisebene liegende und den Kreis nicht schneidende <a href="Rotationsachse" title="Rotationsachse">Rotationsachse</a> erzeugt wird.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ein Rotationstorus kann als <a href="Menge_(Mathematik)" title="Menge (Mathematik)">Menge</a> der <a href="Punkt_(Geometrie)" title="Punkt (Geometrie)">Punkte</a> beschrieben werden, die von einer Kreislinie mit Radius <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4b0bfb3769bf24d80e15374dc37b0441e2616e33.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R}" loading="lazy"></span> den festen <a href="Abstand" title="Abstand">Abstand</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>r</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r}" loading="lazy"></span> haben, wobei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r<R}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>r</mi>
<mo><</mo>
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r<R}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bda3f5af44b388094e37b9ddeb9524a3433ef30c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.911ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r<R}" loading="lazy"></span> ist. In kartesischen <a href="Koordinatensystem" title="Koordinatensystem">Koordinaten</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x,y,z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x,y,z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bbeca34b28f569a407ef74a955d041df9f360268.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.641ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x,y,z}" loading="lazy"></span> mit der <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse</span> als Rotationsachse und den <a href="Mittelpunkt" title="Mittelpunkt">Mittelpunkten</a> des rotierenden Kreises in der <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle xy}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mi>y</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle xy}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c72eb345e496513fb8b2fa4aa8c4d89b855f9a01.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.485ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle xy}" loading="lazy"></span>-Ebene</span> wird er durch die Gleichung: <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left({\sqrt {x^{2}+y^{2}}}-R\right)^{2}+z^{2}=r^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<msup>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>y</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>R</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left({\sqrt {x^{2}+y^{2}}}-R\right)^{2}+z^{2}=r^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/954a523b9889c87184358b656c9d4ca08f07ddab.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:29.029ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left({\sqrt {x^{2}+y^{2}}}-R\right)^{2}+z^{2}=r^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</p><p>beschrieben. Durch Beseitigen der Wurzel ergibt sich die Gleichung 4. Grades
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left(x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}+R^{2}-r^{2}\right)^{2}=4R^{2}\left(x^{2}+y^{2}\right).}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>y</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>R</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<msup>
<mi>R</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>y</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left(x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}+R^{2}-r^{2}\right)^{2}=4R^{2}\left(x^{2}+y^{2}\right).}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b45915d1998a49b426ecffd22205920cf86772ec.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:44.279ex; height:3.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left(x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}+R^{2}-r^{2}\right)^{2}=4R^{2}\left(x^{2}+y^{2}\right).}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Man kann in der Torusoberfläche eine toroidale <a href="Koordinatensystem" title="Koordinatensystem">Koordinate</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>t</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}" loading="lazy"></span> und eine dazu senkrechte poloidale Koordinate <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>p</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}" loading="lazy"></span> einführen. Man denkt sich den Torus als durch einen <a href="Kreis" title="Kreis">Kreis</a> entstanden, der um eine in der Kreisebene liegende Achse rotiert wird. Den Radius des ursprünglichen Kreises nennen wir <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>r</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r}" loading="lazy"></span>, dieser Kreis bildet auch gleichzeitig eine <a href="Koordinatenlinie" title="Koordinatenlinie">Koordinatenlinie</a> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>p</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}" loading="lazy"></span>. Den Abstand des <a href="Kreismittelpunkt" class="mw-redirect" title="Kreismittelpunkt">Kreismittelpunkts</a> von der Achse nennen wir <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R,}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>R</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R,}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3f035e033d7d2c784a07e01448f7605945dfd435.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.411ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R,}" loading="lazy"></span> die Koordinatenlinien von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>t</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}" loading="lazy"></span> sind Kreise um die <a href="Drehachse" class="mw-redirect" title="Drehachse">Drehachse</a>. Beide Koordinaten sind Winkel und laufen von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2aae8864a3c1fec9585261791a809ddec1489950.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 0}" loading="lazy"></span> bis <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2\pi }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2\pi }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/73efd1f6493490b058097060a572606d2c550a06.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.494ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2\pi }" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parametrisierung">Parametrisierung</h3></div>
<p>Die Umrechnung von Toruskoordinaten in <a href="Kartesische_Koordinaten" class="mw-redirect" title="Kartesische Koordinaten">kartesische Koordinaten</a> erfolgt so:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}x\\y\\z\end{pmatrix}}=R\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}\cos(t)\\\sin(t)\\0\end{pmatrix}}+r\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}\cos(t)\cdot \cos(p)\\\sin(t)\cdot \cos(p)\\\sin(p)\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}(R+r\cdot \cos(p))\cos(t)\\(R+r\cdot \cos(p))\sin(t)\\r\cdot \sin(p)\end{pmatrix}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>x</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>y</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>z</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>R</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>R</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>R</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}x\\y\\z\end{pmatrix}}=R\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}\cos(t)\\\sin(t)\\0\end{pmatrix}}+r\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}\cos(t)\cdot \cos(p)\\\sin(t)\cdot \cos(p)\\\sin(p)\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}(R+r\cdot \cos(p))\cos(t)\\(R+r\cdot \cos(p))\sin(t)\\r\cdot \sin(p)\end{pmatrix}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d249831b119e622f205c647c824d2dbf4d48aabb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.338ex; width:76.479ex; height:9.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}x\\y\\z\end{pmatrix}}=R\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}\cos(t)\\\sin(t)\\0\end{pmatrix}}+r\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}\cos(t)\cdot \cos(p)\\\sin(t)\cdot \cos(p)\\\sin(p)\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}(R+r\cdot \cos(p))\cos(t)\\(R+r\cdot \cos(p))\sin(t)\\r\cdot \sin(p)\end{pmatrix}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Toruskoordinaten sind in der Kernfusionstechnologie von Bedeutung, siehe <a href="Kernfusionsreaktor#Magnetfeld" title="Kernfusionsreaktor">Kernfusionsreaktor</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ebene_Schnitte">Ebene Schnitte</h3></div>
<ol><li>Schnitte mit <a href="Ebene_(Mathematik)" title="Ebene (Mathematik)">Ebenen</a>, die <i>die <a href="Rotationsachse" title="Rotationsachse">Rotationsachse</a> enthalten</i>, sind Kreispaare.</li>
<li>Schnitte mit Ebenen, die <i>zur Rotationsachse senkrecht sind</i>, sind Kreispaare oder ein <a href="Kreis" title="Kreis">Kreis</a> oder leer.</li>
<li>Eine <i>zur Rotationsachse parallele Ebene</i> schneidet aus einem Torus eine <a href="Spirische_Kurve" title="Spirische Kurve">spirische Kurve</a> aus. In Sonderfällen kann dies eine <a href="Cassinische_Kurve" title="Cassinische Kurve">Cassinische Kurve</a> sein.</li>
<li>Eine <i>geneigte Ebene, die zwei Erzeugerkreise berührt</i>, schneidet <a href="Villarceau-Kreise" title="Villarceau-Kreise">Villarceau-Kreise</a> aus.</li></ol>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tori_in_der_Darstellenden_Geometrie">Tori in der Darstellenden Geometrie</h3></div>
<p>In der <a href="Darstellende_Geometrie" title="Darstellende Geometrie">Darstellenden Geometrie</a> verwendet man Teile eines Torus zur Konstruktion von Übergangsflächen zwischen <a href="Zylinder_(Geometrie)" title="Zylinder (Geometrie)">Zylindern</a>. Die Darstellung eines Torus durch seinen Umriss findet man in <a href="Umrisskonstruktion" title="Umrisskonstruktion">Umrisskonstruktionen</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Allgemeine_Definition">Allgemeine Definition</h2></div>
<p>Mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {S} ^{1}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">S</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {S} ^{1}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f091cfd6707847adccde50280b0f691f78687621.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.347ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {S} ^{1}}" loading="lazy"></span> werde der <a href="Kreis" title="Kreis">Kreis</a> (die <a href="Topologische_Sph%C3%A4re" title="Topologische Sphäre">1-Sphäre</a>) bezeichnet. Der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Torus ist dann definiert durch
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{n}:=\underbrace {\mathbb {S} ^{1}\times \cdots \times \mathbb {S} ^{1}} _{n\ {\text{mal}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">T</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>:=</mo>
<munder>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OP MJX-fixedlimits">
<munder>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">S</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
<mo>⋯<!-- ⋯ --></mo>
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">S</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
<mo>⏟<!-- ⏟ --></mo>
</munder>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>mal</mtext>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</munder>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{n}:=\underbrace {\mathbb {S} ^{1}\times \cdots \times \mathbb {S} ^{1}} _{n\ {\text{mal}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0c567c64ceeed8d673f794a632590de438ffcdfa.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.838ex; margin-right: -0.028ex; width:19.64ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{n}:=\underbrace {\mathbb {S} ^{1}\times \cdots \times \mathbb {S} ^{1}} _{n\ {\text{mal}}}}" loading="lazy"></span>,</dd></dl>
<p>wobei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \times }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \times }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0ffafff1ad26cbe49045f19a67ce532116a32703.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: 0.019ex; margin-bottom: -0.19ex; width:1.808ex; height:1.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \times }" loading="lazy"></span> das <a href="Produkttopologie" title="Produkttopologie">Produkt topologischer Räume</a> ist. Die im vorhergehenden Abschnitt beschriebene <a href="Rotationsfl%C3%A4che" title="Rotationsfläche">Rotationsfläche</a> ist ein 2-Torus. Der 2-Torus wird meist einfach Torus genannt.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topologische_Eigenschaften">Topologische Eigenschaften</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Struktur_einer_Mannigfaltigkeit">Struktur einer Mannigfaltigkeit</h3></div>
<p>Der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Torus ist eine <a href="Topologische_Mannigfaltigkeit" class="mw-redirect" title="Topologische Mannigfaltigkeit">topologische Mannigfaltigkeit</a>. Dies folgt aus der Tatsache, dass der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Torus das <a href="Topologisches_Produkt" class="mw-redirect" title="Topologisches Produkt">topologische Produkt</a> aus <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span> 1-<a href="Sph%C3%A4re_(Mathematik)" title="Sphäre (Mathematik)">Sphären</a> ist und die 1-Sphäre selbst eine topologische Mannigfaltigkeit ist. Die 1-Sphäre ist zusätzlich auch eine <a href="Differenzierbare_Mannigfaltigkeit" title="Differenzierbare Mannigfaltigkeit">differenzierbare Mannigfaltigkeit</a> und, da das <a href="Kartesisches_Produkt" title="Kartesisches Produkt">Produkt</a> differenzierbarer Mannigfaltigkeiten wieder eine differenzierbare Mannigfaltigkeit ergibt, ist der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Torus ebenfalls eine differenzierbare Mannigfaltigkeit.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die <a href="Dimension_(Mathematik)" title="Dimension (Mathematik)">Dimension</a> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{n}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">T</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{n}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/533e91762d91f473171e75226e4c0fe059325e04.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.769ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{n}}" loading="lazy"></span> ist gleich <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Topologische_Eigenschaften_2">Topologische Eigenschaften</h3></div>
<p>Ebenfalls direkt aus der Definition folgt, dass der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Torus <a href="Kompakter_Raum" title="Kompakter Raum">kompakt</a> ist. Außerdem ist er <a href="Wegzusammenh%C3%A4ngender_Raum" class="mw-redirect" title="Wegzusammenhängender Raum">wegzusammenhängend</a>. Im Gegensatz zur <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Sphäre ist der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Torus für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n>1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n>1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ee74e1cc07e7041edf0fcbd4481f5cd32ad17b64.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.656ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n>1}" loading="lazy"></span> nicht <a href="Einfach_zusammenh%C3%A4ngender_Raum" class="mw-redirect" title="Einfach zusammenhängender Raum">einfach zusammenhängend</a>.
</p><p>Die <a href="Abbildung_(Mathematik)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbildung (Mathematik)">Abbildung</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q\colon \mathbb {R} ^{n}\to \mathbb {T} ^{n}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>:<!-- : --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">T</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q\colon \mathbb {R} ^{n}\to \mathbb {T} ^{n}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0966b6e42fe44f5d686fe7d96f0925c5442de602.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.383ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q\colon \mathbb {R} ^{n}\to \mathbb {T} ^{n}}" loading="lazy"></span>, definiert durch <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (x_{j})_{j}\mapsto (\exp(2\pi \mathrm {i} x_{j}))_{j}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>j</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>j</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">↦<!-- ↦ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>exp</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>j</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>j</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (x_{j})_{j}\mapsto (\exp(2\pi \mathrm {i} x_{j}))_{j}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9d1bbf3a89e893459aa98afff9bba23472ad8c41.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:22.034ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (x_{j})_{j}\mapsto (\exp(2\pi \mathrm {i} x_{j}))_{j}}" loading="lazy"></span>, ist die <a href="Universelle_%C3%9Cberlagerung" class="mw-redirect" title="Universelle Überlagerung">universelle Überlagerung</a> des <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Torus.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lie-Gruppe">Lie-Gruppe</h3></div>
<p>Die 1-<a href="Sph%C3%A4re_(Mathematik)" title="Sphäre (Mathematik)">Sphäre</a>, aufgefasst als <a href="Kreisgruppe" title="Kreisgruppe">Kreisgruppe</a>, ist außerdem eine <a href="Lie-Gruppe" title="Lie-Gruppe">Lie-Gruppe</a>. Da das <a href="Direktes_Produkt" title="Direktes Produkt">Produkt</a> mehrerer Lie-Gruppen mit der komponentenweisen <a href="Multiplikation" title="Multiplikation">Multiplikation</a> wieder eine Lie-Gruppe ist, ist auch der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Torus eine Lie-Gruppe.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eingebettete_Tori">Eingebettete Tori</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flache_Tori">Flache Tori</h3></div>
<p>Da die Kreislinie <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {S} ^{1}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">S</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {S} ^{1}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f091cfd6707847adccde50280b0f691f78687621.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.347ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {S} ^{1}}" loading="lazy"></span> offensichtlich in den <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e150115ab9f63023215109595b76686a1ff890fd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.732ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> <a href="Einbettung_(Mathematik)" title="Einbettung (Mathematik)">eingebettet</a> werden kann, kann der <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Torus</span> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{n}:=\mathbb {S} ^{1}\times \cdots \times \mathbb {S} ^{1}\subset \mathbb {R} ^{2n}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">T</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>:=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">S</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
<mo>⋯<!-- ⋯ --></mo>
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">S</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>⊂<!-- ⊂ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{n}:=\mathbb {S} ^{1}\times \cdots \times \mathbb {S} ^{1}\subset \mathbb {R} ^{2n}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/493da57bdee7ca8070d3a75cbbb85e613a6cfe64.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:26.429ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{n}:=\mathbb {S} ^{1}\times \cdots \times \mathbb {S} ^{1}\subset \mathbb {R} ^{2n}}" loading="lazy"></span> als <a href="Teilmenge" title="Teilmenge">Teilmenge</a> des <a href="Euklidischer_Raum" title="Euklidischer Raum">euklidischen Raums</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2n}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2n}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47460f1a92774729807be11cf62b9178b5771b4a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.719ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2n}}" loading="lazy"></span> aufgefasst werden. Man betrachtet auf <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{n}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">T</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{n}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/533e91762d91f473171e75226e4c0fe059325e04.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.769ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{n}}" loading="lazy"></span> die <a href="Riemannsche_Metrik" class="mw-redirect" title="Riemannsche Metrik">riemannsche Metrik</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>g</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d3556280e66fe2c0d0140df20935a6f057381d77.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.116ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g}" loading="lazy"></span>, die durch die <a href="Euklidische_Metrik" class="mw-redirect" title="Euklidische Metrik">euklidische Metrik</a> des Raums <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2n}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2n}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47460f1a92774729807be11cf62b9178b5771b4a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.719ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2n}}" loading="lazy"></span> auf dem <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Torus</span> induziert wird. Diese <a href="Metrik_(Mathematik)" class="mw-redirect" title="Metrik (Mathematik)">Metrik</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>g</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d3556280e66fe2c0d0140df20935a6f057381d77.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.116ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g}" loading="lazy"></span> ist <a href="Flache_Metrik" class="mw-redirect" title="Flache Metrik">flach</a>, das heißt, der <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Torus</span> ist lokal <a href="Isometrie_(Riemannsche_Geometrie)" title="Isometrie (Riemannsche Geometrie)">isometrisch</a> zu einer <a href="Umgebung_(Mathematik)" title="Umgebung (Mathematik)">Umgebung</a> des <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c510b63578322050121fe966f2e5770bea43308d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.897ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}}" loading="lazy"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Insbesondere ist daher seine <a href="Schnittkr%C3%BCmmung" title="Schnittkrümmung">Schnittkrümmung</a> überall konstant null. Da der <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Torus</span> kompakt und somit auch <a href="Geod%C3%A4tisch_vollst%C3%A4ndige_Mannigfaltigkeit" class="mw-redirect" title="Geodätisch vollständige Mannigfaltigkeit">vollständig</a> ist, ist er eine <a href="Flache_Mannigfaltigkeit" title="Flache Mannigfaltigkeit">flache Mannigfaltigkeit</a>. Man spricht daher auch von einem flachen <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-Torus.</span> Ein flacher <span style="white-space:nowrap">2-Torus</span> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{2}=\mathbb {S} ^{1}\times \mathbb {S} ^{1}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">T</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">S</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">S</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{2}=\mathbb {S} ^{1}\times \mathbb {S} ^{1}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1676db8ee67e843e8b9846cdba856ec2d0d76de8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:13.237ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {T} ^{2}=\mathbb {S} ^{1}\times \mathbb {S} ^{1}}" loading="lazy"></span> kann nicht längentreu auf einen Rotationstorus im <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f936ddf584f8f3dd2a0ed08917001b7a404c10b5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.732ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}}" loading="lazy"></span> abgebildet werden, denn die Schnittkrümmung des Rotationstorus ist nicht überall null wie beim flachen <span style="white-space:nowrap">2-Torus.</span>
</p><p>Es gibt neben der oben beschriebenen noch weitere flache <a href="Metrik_(Mathematik)" class="mw-redirect" title="Metrik (Mathematik)">Metriken</a> auf dem Torus. Flache <span style="white-space:nowrap">2-Tori</span> können beschrieben werden durch ein <a href="Parallelogramm" title="Parallelogramm">Parallelogramm</a>, dessen gegenüberliegende Seiten zusammengeklebt werden. Äquivalent dazu können flache Tori als topologische <a href="Faktorgruppe" title="Faktorgruppe">Faktorgruppen</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}/(\mathbb {Z} \cdot v+\mathbb {Z} \cdot w)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">Z</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>v</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">Z</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}/(\mathbb {Z} \cdot v+\mathbb {Z} \cdot w)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/36cb48ea2b0398fb30658c6924988031710403bf.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:17.795ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}/(\mathbb {Z} \cdot v+\mathbb {Z} \cdot w)}" loading="lazy"></span> für zwei <a href="Linear_unabh%C3%A4ngig" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear unabhängig">linear unabhängige</a> <a href="Vektor" title="Vektor">Vektoren</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v,w\in \mathbb {R} ^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>v</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v,w\in \mathbb {R} ^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ad387d73c82404a7fd0d666f6eaccf8c0b7f24c2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.399ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v,w\in \mathbb {R} ^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> beschrieben werden. Im Spezialfall <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v=(1,0)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>v</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v=(1,0)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/51f3fedd861e36d19d36b8b38950bd76d7827874.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.394ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v=(1,0)}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle w=(0,1)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>w</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle w=(0,1)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/abcb6857d836e86f23ff869c36f5996272b118bb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.931ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle w=(0,1)}" loading="lazy"></span> erhält man den <a href="Quotient" title="Quotient">Quotienten</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}/\mathbb {Z} ^{2}\cong (\mathbb {R} /\mathbb {Z} )^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">Z</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>≅<!-- ≅ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">Z</mi>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}/\mathbb {Z} ^{2}\cong (\mathbb {R} /\mathbb {Z} )^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/dedaa47044c950e26771193065764068b1865319.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.852ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}/\mathbb {Z} ^{2}\cong (\mathbb {R} /\mathbb {Z} )^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p><p><a href="Elliptische_Kurve" title="Elliptische Kurve">Elliptische Kurven</a> über den <a href="Komplexe_Zahl" title="Komplexe Zahl">komplexen Zahlen</a> lassen sich mittels der Weierstraßschen Parametrisierung als <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} /L}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>L</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} /L}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/34dba9bc85c2c7f4bf4d509dc5ce54ecbc9b6fea.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.423ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} /L}" loading="lazy"></span> für ein <a href="Gitter_(Mathematik)" title="Gitter (Mathematik)">Gitter</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L\subset \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>L</mi>
<mo>⊂<!-- ⊂ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L\subset \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/cc21f117bc97c252c3059b638b0a742852ace2fb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.359ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L\subset \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> darstellen und sind dadurch (mit einer <a href="Translationsinvarianz" class="mw-redirect" title="Translationsinvarianz">translationsinvarianten</a> <a href="Metrik_(Mathematik)" class="mw-redirect" title="Metrik (Mathematik)">Metrik</a>) Beispiele für flache Tori. Der <a href="Modulraum" title="Modulraum">Modulraum</a> der <a href="Elliptische_Kurve" title="Elliptische Kurve">elliptischen Kurven</a> oder äquivalent der flachen <span style="white-space:nowrap">2-Tori</span> ist die sogenannte <a href="Modulkurve" class="mw-redirect" title="Modulkurve">Modulkurve</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tori_im_dreidimensionalen_Raum">Tori im dreidimensionalen Raum</h3></div>
<p>Eine 2-mal differenzierbare Einbettung des Torus in den <a href="Dreidimensional" class="mw-redirect" title="Dreidimensional">dreidimensionalen</a> <a href="Raum_(Mathematik)" title="Raum (Mathematik)">Raum</a> kann nicht flach sein, weil die lokalen <a href="Extremwert" title="Extremwert">Extrema</a> Punkte positiver <a href="Kr%C3%BCmmung" title="Krümmung">Krümmung</a> sein müssen. Nach dem <a href="Einbettungssatz_von_Nash" title="Einbettungssatz von Nash">Einbettungssatz von Nash</a> gibt es jedoch <a href="Fraktal" title="Fraktal">fraktale</a> (nur 1-mal <a href="Differenzierbarkeit" title="Differenzierbarkeit">differenzierbare</a>) Einbettungen des flachen Torus in den dreidimensionalen <a href="Raum_(Mathematik)" title="Raum (Mathematik)">Raum</a>. Diese können auch numerisch konstruiert werden.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Ein Rotationstorus ist ein im <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f936ddf584f8f3dd2a0ed08917001b7a404c10b5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.732ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}}" loading="lazy"></span> eingebetteter 2-Torus, der als <a href="Menge_(Mathematik)" title="Menge (Mathematik)">Menge</a> der <a href="Punkt_(Geometrie)" title="Punkt (Geometrie)">Punkte</a> beschrieben werden kann, die von einer Kreislinie mit <a href="Radius" title="Radius">Radius</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4b0bfb3769bf24d80e15374dc37b0441e2616e33.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R}" loading="lazy"></span> den festen <a href="Abstand" title="Abstand">Abstand</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>r</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r}" loading="lazy"></span> haben, wobei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r<R}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>r</mi>
<mo><</mo>
<mi>R</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r<R}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bda3f5af44b388094e37b9ddeb9524a3433ef30c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.911ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r<R}" loading="lazy"></span> ist.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clifford-Tori">Clifford-Tori</h3></div>
<p>Ein Clifford-Torus ist ein spezieller in <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S^{3}\subset \mathbb {R} ^{4}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>S</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>⊂<!-- ⊂ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>4</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S^{3}\subset \mathbb {R} ^{4}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/cd9b4803287e37c424c25f69a6563fd20eb2fd86.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:8.407ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S^{3}\subset \mathbb {R} ^{4}}" loading="lazy"></span> eingebetteter Torus. Nach der Identifizierung <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{4}=\mathbb {C} ^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>4</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{4}=\mathbb {C} ^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ce5aa7a765d0740e947206d4840fe6a585bfde43.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:8.563ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{4}=\mathbb {C} ^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S^{3}=\left\{(z,w)\in \mathbb {C} ^{2}\colon |z|^{2}+|w|^{2}=1\right\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>S</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>:<!-- : --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>z</mi>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>w</mi>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S^{3}=\left\{(z,w)\in \mathbb {C} ^{2}\colon |z|^{2}+|w|^{2}=1\right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18e763ef0f10d84e09009ca77a8283e2235aad5d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:35.527ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S^{3}=\left\{(z,w)\in \mathbb {C} ^{2}\colon |z|^{2}+|w|^{2}=1\right\}}" loading="lazy"></span> lässt sich der Standard-Cliffordtorus beschreiben als
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T:=\left\{(z,w)\in \mathbb {C} ^{2}\colon |z|=|w|={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}\right\}\subset S^{3}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>T</mi>
<mo>:=</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>:<!-- : --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>w</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<msqrt>
<mn>2</mn>
</msqrt>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>⊂<!-- ⊂ --></mo>
<msup>
<mi>S</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T:=\left\{(z,w)\in \mathbb {C} ^{2}\colon |z|=|w|={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}\right\}\subset S^{3}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/942a08c9803130c7989f6eeb859f84390b3c0845.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:42.216ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T:=\left\{(z,w)\in \mathbb {C} ^{2}\colon |z|=|w|={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}\right\}\subset S^{3}}" loading="lazy"></span>.</dd></dl>
<p>Weiters werden die Bilder von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>T</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}" loading="lazy"></span> unter Isometrien der Standard-Metrik <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\in O(3)=\operatorname {Isom} (S^{3})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>A</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mi>O</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>3</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>Isom</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msup>
<mi>S</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\in O(3)=\operatorname {Isom} (S^{3})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/958c4195d381fdc9f9bb22d94f75d294b69e0389.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:21.667ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\in O(3)=\operatorname {Isom} (S^{3})}" loading="lazy"></span> als Clifford-Tori bezeichnet.
</p><p>Mittels <a href="Stereographische_Projektion" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereographische Projektion">stereographischer Projektion</a> kann man Clifford-Tori auch als in den <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f936ddf584f8f3dd2a0ed08917001b7a404c10b5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.732ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}}" loading="lazy"></span> eingebettete Tori auffassen.
</p><p>Ein Clifford-Torus ist eine <a href="Minimalfl%C3%A4che" title="Minimalfläche">Minimalfläche</a> bzgl. der <a href="Standardmetrik" class="mw-redirect" title="Standardmetrik">Standardmetrik</a> auf der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S^{3}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>S</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S^{3}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/01e57c690f890937838c10ba57853ff21bf30ec8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.576ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S^{3}}" loading="lazy"></span>. Die von <a href="Simon_Brendle" title="Simon Brendle">Brendle</a> bewiesene <a href="H._Blaine_Lawson" title="H. Blaine Lawson">Lawson</a>-Vermutung besagt, dass jeder als Minimalfläche in die <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S^{3}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>S</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S^{3}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/01e57c690f890937838c10ba57853ff21bf30ec8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.576ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S^{3}}" loading="lazy"></span> eingebettete Torus ein Clifford-Torus ist.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Konstruktion_aus_einem_Quadrat_oder_Würfel"><span id="Konstruktion_aus_einem_Quadrat_oder_W.C3.BCrfel"></span>Konstruktion aus einem Quadrat oder Würfel</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Konstruktion_zweidimensionaler_Tori_aus_einem_Quadrat_oder_Parallelogramm">Konstruktion zweidimensionaler Tori aus einem Quadrat oder Parallelogramm</h3></div>
<p>Im Gegensatz zur Oberfläche einer <a href="Kugel" title="Kugel">Kugel</a> kann der Torus ohne <a href="Isolierte_Singularit%C3%A4t" title="Isolierte Singularität">Singularitäten</a> auf einer ebenen, <a href="Rechteck" title="Rechteck">rechteckigen</a> <a href="Fl%C3%A4che_(Mathematik)" title="Fläche (Mathematik)">Fläche</a> abgebildet werden.
</p><p>Dabei wird die rechte Kante des <a href="Rechteck" title="Rechteck">Rechtecks</a> oder <a href="Quadrat_(Geometrie)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrat (Geometrie)">Quadrats</a> mit seiner linken Kante verheftet und seine untere Kante wird mit seiner oberen Kante verheftet. Diese Konstruktion funktioniert auch mit einem beliebigen <a href="Parallelogramm" title="Parallelogramm">Parallelogramm</a>. Diese <a href="Topologie_(Mathematik)" title="Topologie (Mathematik)">Topologie</a> besitzen auch viele Computerspiele, zum Beispiel <a href="Asteroids" title="Asteroids">Asteroids</a> oder <a href="Pac-Man" title="Pac-Man">Pac-Man</a>: Verlässt ein Spielobjekt auf einer Seite das Spielfeld, so taucht es auf der gegenüberliegenden Seite wieder auf.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Konstruktion_höherdimensionaler_Tori_aus_einem_Würfel_oder_Parallelepiped"><span id="Konstruktion_h.C3.B6herdimensionaler_Tori_aus_einem_W.C3.BCrfel_oder_Parallelepiped"></span>Konstruktion höherdimensionaler Tori aus einem Würfel oder Parallelepiped</h3></div>
<p>Beim <a href="Dreidimensional" class="mw-redirect" title="Dreidimensional">dreidimensionalen</a> Torus oder 3-Torus handelt es sich um einen <a href="Quader" title="Quader">Quader</a> oder <a href="W%C3%BCrfel_(Geometrie)" title="Würfel (Geometrie)">Würfel</a>, dessen sechs gegenüberliegende Flächen paarweise miteinander verheftet sind.
</p><p>Beim <a href="Vierdimensional" class="mw-redirect" title="Vierdimensional">vierdimensionalen</a> Torus oder 4-Torus handelt es sich um einen <a href="Tesserakt" title="Tesserakt">Tesserakt</a>, dessen acht gegenüberliegende <a href="W%C3%BCrfel_(Geometrie)" title="Würfel (Geometrie)">Würfel</a> paarweise miteinander verheftet sind.
</p><p>Allgemein ist der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-dimensionale Torus ein <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-dimensionaler Würfel <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle [0,1]^{n}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">[</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">]</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle [0,1]^{n}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/40160923273b7109968df994dca832b91d957bf2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.871ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle [0,1]^{n}}" loading="lazy"></span>, dessen gegenüberliegende <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (n-1)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (n-1)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/df88c6333caaf6471cf277f24b802ff9931b133e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.207ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (n-1)}" loading="lazy"></span>-<a href="Hyperw%C3%BCrfel" title="Hyperwürfel">Hyperwürfel</a> paarweise miteinander identifiziert sind. Man kann ihn auch als <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}/\mathbb {Z} ^{n}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">Z</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}/\mathbb {Z} ^{n}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/508a95b410b6cc6a29d5659fbf855e1dbc229271.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.828ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}/\mathbb {Z} ^{n}}" loading="lazy"></span> darstellen.
</p><p>Auch hier kann man statt eines <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-dimensionalen <a href="W%C3%BCrfel_(Geometrie)" title="Würfel (Geometrie)">Würfels</a> ein beliebiges <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-dimensionales <a href="Parallelepiped" title="Parallelepiped">Parallelepiped</a> verwenden, um durch Identifizieren der Seiten einen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-dimensionalen Torus zu konstruieren.
</p><p><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"></span>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sieben-Farben-Satz">Sieben-Farben-Satz</h2></div>
<div style="float:right;"></div>
<div style="float:right;"></div>
<p>Der Sieben-Farben-Satz für den Torus besagt, dass 7 Farben immer ausreichen, eine beliebige Landkarte auf der Oberfläche eines Torus so einzufärben, dass keine zwei angrenzenden Länder die gleiche Farbe bekommen.
</p><p>Das bedeutet, dass jeder <a href="Graph_(Graphentheorie)" title="Graph (Graphentheorie)">Graph</a>, der in den Torus eingebettet werden kann, eine <a href="Chromatische_Zahl" title="Chromatische Zahl">chromatische Zahl</a> von höchstens 7 hat (siehe <a href="Knotenf%C3%A4rbung" class="mw-redirect" title="Knotenfärbung">Knotenfärbung</a>). Weil der <a href="Vollst%C3%A4ndiger_Graph" title="Vollständiger Graph">vollständige Graph</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle K_{7}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>K</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>7</mn>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K_{7}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2ef48fe3ef29569d538bad2715d17d7f1f2f204a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.027ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K_{7}}" loading="lazy"></span> in den Torus eingebettet werden kann, ist die chromatische Zahl gleich 7.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In der <a href="Ebene_(Mathematik)" title="Ebene (Mathematik)">Ebene</a> oder auf einer <a href="Kugeloberfl%C3%A4che" class="mw-redirect" title="Kugeloberfläche">Kugeloberfläche</a> reichen weniger Farben. Der <a href="Vier-Farben-Satz" title="Vier-Farben-Satz">Vier-Farben-Satz</a> besagt, dass vier Farben immer ausreichen, eine beliebige Landkarte in der <a href="Euklidischer_Raum" title="Euklidischer Raum">euklidischen Ebene</a> so einzufärben, dass keine zwei angrenzenden Länder die gleiche Farbe bekommen.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Algebraischer_Torus">Algebraischer Torus</h2></div>
<p>In der Theorie <a href="Algebraische_Gruppe" title="Algebraische Gruppe">algebraischer Gruppen</a> wird <i>Torus</i> in einem anderen Sinn verwendet. Dort ist damit eine <a href="Gruppe_(Mathematik)" title="Gruppe (Mathematik)">Gruppe</a> gemeint, die <a href="Isomorphismus" title="Isomorphismus">isomorph</a> zu einem endlichen <a href="Direktes_Produkt" title="Direktes Produkt">Produkt</a> von Kopien der <a href="Multiplikative_Gruppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiplikative Gruppe">multiplikativen Gruppe</a> eines <a href="K%C3%B6rper_(Algebra)" title="Körper (Algebra)">Körpers</a> ist. Zur Abgrenzung spricht man dann von einem <i>algebraischen Torus</i> im Gegensatz zu einem <i>topologischen Torus.</i>
</p><p>So ist zum Beispiel in der torischen <a href="Geometrie" title="Geometrie">Geometrie</a>, dem Studium <a href="Torische_Variet%C3%A4t" title="Torische Varietät">torischer Varietäten</a>, ein <i>Torus</i> üblicherweise ein <i>algebraischer Torus.</i><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anwendungsbeispiele">Anwendungsbeispiele</h2></div>
<div style="float:right;"></div>
<div style="float:right;"></div>
<ul><li>Ein <a href="Rettungsring" title="Rettungsring">Rettungsring</a> mit dem <a href="Au%C3%9Fendurchmesser" class="mw-redirect" title="Außendurchmesser">Außendurchmesser</a> 76 <a href="Zentimeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Zentimeter">Zentimeter</a> und dem <a href="Innendurchmesser" class="mw-redirect" title="Innendurchmesser">Innendurchmesser</a> 44 Zentimeter hat die Form eines Torus. Er hat also den festen <a href="Abstand" title="Abstand">Abstand</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r=(76\ \mathrm {cm} -44\ \mathrm {cm} )/4=8\ \mathrm {cm} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>76</mn>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi>
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<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
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<mn>4</mn>
<mo>=</mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r=(76\ \mathrm {cm} -44\ \mathrm {cm} )/4=8\ \mathrm {cm} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/844015d5783c820d440f84ea0d460d8876409176.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:30.679ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r=(76\ \mathrm {cm} -44\ \mathrm {cm} )/4=8\ \mathrm {cm} }" loading="lazy"></span> von einer Kreislinie mit dem <a href="Radius" title="Radius">Radius</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R=(76\ \mathrm {cm} +44\ \mathrm {cm} )/4=30\ \mathrm {cm} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>R</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>76</mn>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi>
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<mo>+</mo>
<mn>44</mn>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi>
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<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
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<mo>/</mo>
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<mn>4</mn>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>30</mn>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R=(76\ \mathrm {cm} +44\ \mathrm {cm} )/4=30\ \mathrm {cm} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3f39bb41d9573517dd0b5f8b5cbb00c437727dc6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:32.557ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R=(76\ \mathrm {cm} +44\ \mathrm {cm} )/4=30\ \mathrm {cm} }" loading="lazy"></span>.</li></ul>
<dl><dd>Daraus ergeben sich das <a href="Volumen" title="Volumen">Volumen</a> und die <a href="Fl%C3%A4che_(Mathematik)" title="Fläche (Mathematik)">Oberfläche</a>:</dd></dl>
<dl><dd><b>Volumen:</b> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V=2\cdot \pi ^{2}\cdot r^{2}\cdot R=2\cdot \pi ^{2}\cdot (8\ \mathrm {cm} )^{2}\cdot 30\ \mathrm {cm} \approx 37899\ \mathrm {cm^{3}} =37{,}899\ \mathrm {dm^{3}} =0{,}037899\ \mathrm {m^{3}} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>V</mi>
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<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
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<mn>2</mn>
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<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
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<mn>2</mn>
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</msup>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>R</mi>
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<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<msup>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
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<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>8</mn>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi>
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<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
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<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mn>30</mn>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi>
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<mo>≈<!-- ≈ --></mo>
<mn>37899</mn>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi>
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<mn>3</mn>
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<mo>=</mo>
<mn>37,899</mn>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
<msup>
<mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
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<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0,037</mn>
<mn>899</mn>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msup>
<mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
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</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V=2\cdot \pi ^{2}\cdot r^{2}\cdot R=2\cdot \pi ^{2}\cdot (8\ \mathrm {cm} )^{2}\cdot 30\ \mathrm {cm} \approx 37899\ \mathrm {cm^{3}} =37{,}899\ \mathrm {dm^{3}} =0{,}037899\ \mathrm {m^{3}} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8bccb89dc3a7c8f285eaa784b7d9aae110fa605c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:85.864ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V=2\cdot \pi ^{2}\cdot r^{2}\cdot R=2\cdot \pi ^{2}\cdot (8\ \mathrm {cm} )^{2}\cdot 30\ \mathrm {cm} \approx 37899\ \mathrm {cm^{3}} =37{,}899\ \mathrm {dm^{3}} =0{,}037899\ \mathrm {m^{3}} }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<dl><dd><b>Oberfläche:</b> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A_{O}=4\cdot \pi ^{2}\cdot r\cdot R=4\cdot \pi ^{2}\cdot 8\ \mathrm {cm} \cdot 30\ \mathrm {cm} \approx 9475\ \mathrm {cm^{2}} =94{,}75\ \mathrm {dm^{2}} =0{,}9475\ \mathrm {m^{2}} }">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi>
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<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
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<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi>
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<mo>≈<!-- ≈ --></mo>
<mn>9475</mn>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi>
<msup>
<mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mo>=</mo>
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<mo>,</mo>
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<mn>75</mn>
<mtext> </mtext>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
<msup>
<mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mo>=</mo>
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<mn>5</mn>
<mtext> </mtext>
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<msup>
<mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A_{O}=4\cdot \pi ^{2}\cdot r\cdot R=4\cdot \pi ^{2}\cdot 8\ \mathrm {cm} \cdot 30\ \mathrm {cm} \approx 9475\ \mathrm {cm^{2}} =94{,}75\ \mathrm {dm^{2}} =0{,}9475\ \mathrm {m^{2}} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5a4fb43e40a820ba272ea6b2c64f3aafff287947.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:78.739ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A_{O}=4\cdot \pi ^{2}\cdot r\cdot R=4\cdot \pi ^{2}\cdot 8\ \mathrm {cm} \cdot 30\ \mathrm {cm} \approx 9475\ \mathrm {cm^{2}} =94{,}75\ \mathrm {dm^{2}} =0{,}9475\ \mathrm {m^{2}} }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<ul><li>Horntorus:<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Für die <a href="W%C3%BCrfelverdoppelung" title="Würfelverdoppelung">Würfelverdoppelung</a> fand <a href="Archytas_von_Tarent" title="Archytas von Tarent">Archytas von Tarent</a> eine nach ihm benannte Kurve. Dazu verwendete er neben einem halben Zylinder und einem Kegelausschnitt auch einen Horntorus. Darin ist der Abstand <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R}">
<semantics>
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<mi>R</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4b0bfb3769bf24d80e15374dc37b0441e2616e33.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R}" loading="lazy"></span> des Kreismittelpunkts von der Achse (siehe Abschnitt <a href="#Torus_als_Rotationsfläche">Torus als Rotationsfläche</a>) gleich dem Radius <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r}">
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<mi>r</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r}" loading="lazy"></span> des ursprünglichen Kreises.</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Siehe_auch">Siehe auch</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="Punktierter_Torus" title="Punktierter Torus">Punktierter Torus</a></li>
<li><a href="Torusknoten" title="Torusknoten">Torusknoten</a></li>
<li><a href="Stanford-Torus" title="Stanford-Torus">Stanford-Torus</a></li>
<li><a href="Torus-Antenne" class="mw-redirect" title="Torus-Antenne">Torus-Antenne</a></li>
<li><a href="Spindeltorus" title="Spindeltorus">Spindeltorus</a></li>
<li><a href="Dupinsche_Zyklide" title="Dupinsche Zyklide">Dupinsche Zyklide</a></li>
<li><a href="Spirische_Kurve" title="Spirische Kurve">Spirische Kurve</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literatur">Literatur</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="Marcel_Berger" title="Marcel Berger">Marcel Berger</a>: <i>Geometry I.</i> Translated from the 1977 French original by M. Cole and S. Levy. Universitext. Springer-Verlag, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-540-11658-5.</li>
<li><a href="Anatole_Katok" title="Anatole Katok">Anatole Katok</a>, Vaughn Climenhaga: <i>Lectures on surfaces. (Almost) everything you wanted to know about them.</i> Student Mathematical Library, 46. American Mathematical Society, Providence RI / Mathematics Advanced Study Semesters, University Park PA 2008, ISBN 978-0-8218-4679-7.</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Weblinks">Weblinks</h2></div>
<div class="sisterproject" style="margin:0.1em 0 0 0;"><span class="noviewer" style="display:inline-block; line-height:10px; min-width:1.6em; text-align:center;" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Wiktionary"></span></span></span><b><a href="https://de.wiktionary.org/wiki/Torus" class="extiw external" title="wikt:Torus">Wiktionary: Torus</a></b> – Bedeutungserklärungen, Wortherkunft, Synonyme, Übersetzungen</div>
<div class="sisterproject" style="margin:0.1em 0 0 0;"><div class="noresize noviewer" style="display:inline-block; line-height:10px; min-width:1.6em; text-align:center;" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons"></span></span></div><b><span class=""><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Torus?uselang=de"><span lang="en">Commons</span>: Torus</a></span></b> – Album mit Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien</div>
<ul><li><a href="Eric_Weisstein" title="Eric Weisstein">Eric W. Weisstein</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Torus.html"><i>Torus</i>.</a> In: <i><a href="MathWorld" title="MathWorld">MathWorld</a></i> (englisch).</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathcurve.com/surfaces/tore/tore.shtml">Torus.</a> Mathcurve.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mathematische-basteleien.de/torus.htm">Torus.</a> Mathematische Basteleien.</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Einzelnachweise">Einzelnachweise</h2></div>
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Karl_Ernst_Georges" title="Karl Ernst Georges">Karl Ernst Georges</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic"><span lang="la">torus</span></cite>. [1]. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Ausführliches lateinisch-deutsches Handwörterbuch</cite>. 8., verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>2</span>: <i>I–Z</i>. Hahnsche Buchhandlung, Hannover 1918, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Sp.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>3158–3159</span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zeno.org/nid/20002697009">Digitalisat.</a> <a href="Zeno.org" title="Zeno.org">zeno.org</a>).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Torus&rft.atitle=torus&rft.au=Karl+Ernst+Georges&rft.btitle=Ausf%C3%BChrliches+lateinisch-deutsches+Handw%C3%B6rterbuch&rft.date=1918&rft.edition=8.%2C+verbesserte+und+vermehrte&rft.genre=book&rft.place=Hannover&rft.pub=Hahnsche+Buchhandlung&rft.volume=Band+2%3A+I-Z" style="display:none"> </span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Es gibt einige andere heute nicht mehr gebräuchliche historische Verwendungen des Begriffs <i>Torus:</i> <cite style="font-style:italic">Torus</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic"><a href="Herders_Conversations-Lexikon" title="Herders Conversations-Lexikon">Herders Conversations-Lexikon</a></cite>. 1. Auflage. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>5</span>: <i>S – Zytomierz und Nachträge</i>. Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 1857, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>500</span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zeno.org/nid/2000354558X">Digitalisat.</a> <a href="Zeno.org" title="Zeno.org">zeno.org</a>).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Torus&rft.atitle=Torus&rft.btitle=Herders+Conversations-Lexikon&rft.date=1857&rft.edition=1.&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=500&rft.place=Freiburg+im+Breisgau&rft.pub=Herder&rft.volume=Band+5%3A+S+-+Zytomierz+und+Nachtr%C3%A4ge" style="display:none"> </span> <cite style="font-style:italic">Torus</cite>. In: <a href="Heinrich_August_Pierer" title="Heinrich August Pierer">Heinrich August Pierer</a>, <a href="Julius_L%C3%B6be" title="Julius Löbe">Julius Löbe</a> (Hrsg.): <cite style="font-style:italic"><a href="Universal-Lexikon_der_Gegenwart_und_Vergangenheit" title="Universal-Lexikon der Gegenwart und Vergangenheit">Universal-Lexikon der Gegenwart und Vergangenheit</a></cite>. 4. Auflage. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>17</span>: <i>Stückgießerei–Türkische Regenkugel</i>. Altenburg 1863, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>707</span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zeno.org/nid/20011122501">Digitalisat.</a> <a href="Zeno.org" title="Zeno.org">zeno.org</a>).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Torus&rft.atitle=Torus&rft.btitle=Universal-Lexikon+der+Gegenwart+und+Vergangenheit&rft.date=1863&rft.edition=4.&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=707&rft.place=Altenburg&rft.volume=Band+17%3A+St%C3%BCckgie%C3%9Ferei-T%C3%BCrkische+Regenkugel" style="display:none"> </span> <cite style="font-style:italic">Torus</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic"><a href="Meyers_Konversations-Lexikon" title="Meyers Konversations-Lexikon">Meyers Großes Konversations-Lexikon</a></cite>. 6. Auflage. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>19</span>: <i>Sternberg–Vector</i>. Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig / Wien 1909, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>631</span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zeno.org/nid/20007594860">Digitalisat.</a> <a href="Zeno.org" title="Zeno.org">zeno.org</a>).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Torus&rft.atitle=Torus&rft.btitle=Meyers+Gro%C3%9Fes+Konversations-Lexikon&rft.date=1909&rft.edition=6.&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=631&rft.place=Leipzig+%2F+Wien&rft.pub=Bibliographisches+Institut&rft.volume=Band+19%3A+Sternberg-Vector" style="display:none"> </span> <cite style="font-style:italic">Torus</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic"><a href="Brockhaus_Enzyklop%C3%A4die#„Die_kleinen_Schwestern“" title="Brockhaus Enzyklopädie">Brockhaus’ Kleines Konversations-Lexikon</a></cite>. 5. Auflage. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>2</span>. Brockhaus, Leipzig 1911, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>851</span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zeno.org/nid/20001626183">Digitalisat.</a> <a href="Zeno.org" title="Zeno.org">zeno.org</a>).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Torus&rft.atitle=Torus&rft.btitle=Brockhaus%E2%80%99+Kleines+Konversations-Lexikon&rft.date=1911&rft.edition=5.&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=851&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Brockhaus&rft.volume=Band+2" style="display:none"> </span> <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Torus</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic"><a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></cite>. 11. Auflage. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>27</span>: <span style="font-style:italic;">Tonalite – Vesuvius</span>. London 1911, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>79</span> (englisch, <a href="https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/en:1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Torus" class="extiw external" title="s:en:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Torus">Volltext</a> [<a href="Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>]).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Torus&rft.atitle=Torus&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=1911&rft.edition=11.&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=79&rft.place=London&rft.volume=Band+27%3A+Tonalite+-+Vesuvius" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ilja N. Bronstein, Konstantin A. Semendjajew: <i>Taschenbuch der Mathematik.</i> Harri Deutsch Verlag, 1983, ISBN 3-87144-492-8, S. 253.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Ulrich_Graf_(Mathematiker)" title="Ulrich Graf (Mathematiker)">Ulrich Graf</a>, <a href="Martin_Barner" title="Martin Barner">Martin Barner</a>: <i>Darstellende Geometrie.</i> Quelle & Meyer, Heidelberg 1961, ISBN 3-494-00488-9, S. 202, 209.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Leopold: <i>Geometrische Grundlagen der Architekturdarstellung.</i> Verlag W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-17-018489-X, S. 123, 129.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">John M. Lee: <i>Introduction to Smooth Manifolds</i> (= <i>Graduate Texts in Mathematics 218.</i>) Springer-Verlag, New York NY u. a. 2003, ISBN 0-387-95448-1, S. 8.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">John M. Lee: <i>Introduction to Smooth Manifolds</i> (= <i>Graduate Texts in Mathematics 218.</i>) Springer-Verlag, New York NY u. a. 2003, ISBN 0-387-95448-1, S. 21.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tammo tom Dieck: <i>Topologie.</i> de Gruyter, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-11-016236-9, S. 52.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">John M. Lee: <i>Introduction to Smooth Manifolds</i> (= <i>Graduate Texts in Mathematics 218.</i>) Springer-Verlag, New York NY u. a. 2003, ISBN 0-387-95448-1, S. 39.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">John M. Lee: <i>Introduction to Smooth Manifolds</i> (= <i>Graduate Texts in Mathematics 218.</i>) Springer-Verlag, New York NY u. a. 2003, ISBN 0-387-95448-1, S. 289.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">V. Borrelli, S. Jabrane, F. Lazarus, B. Thibert: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r261891140">
/* start https://de.wikipedia.org/ */
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</style><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120701000000/http://math.univ-lyon1.fr/~borrelli/Hevea/PNAS_version_soumise.pdf"><i>Flat tori in three-dimensional space and convex integration.</i></a> (<span class="webarchiv-memento"><a href="Webarchivierung#Begrifflichkeiten" title="Webarchivierung">Memento</a></span> vom 1. Juli 2012 im <i><a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></i>; PDF) In: <i>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA</i>, 2012, 109, no. 19, S. 7218–7223; abgerufen am 7. Juli 2022.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.cnrs.fr/presse/communique/2583.htm"><i>Mathématiques: première image d’un tore plat en 3D</i>.</a> <a href="Centre_national_de_la_recherche_scientifique" title="Centre national de la recherche scientifique">CNRS</a>, Pressemitteilung, 20. April 2012, abgerufen am 7. Juli 2022.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Eric_Weisstein" title="Eric Weisstein">Eric W. Weisstein</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathworld.wolfram.com/TorusColoring.html"><i>Torus Coloring</i>.</a> In: <i><a href="MathWorld" title="MathWorld">MathWorld</a></i> (englisch). </span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Chelsey Poettker: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.siue.edu/~aweyhau/teaching/seniorprojects/poettker_final.pdf"><i>Topology and the Four Color Theorem</i>.</a> (PDF; 400 kB) Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, 4. Mai 2010; abgerufen am 7. Juli 2022.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Eric_Weisstein" title="Eric Weisstein">Eric W. Weisstein</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Four-ColorTheorem.html"><i>Four-Color Theorem</i>.</a> In: <i><a href="MathWorld" title="MathWorld">MathWorld</a></i> (englisch). </span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Neil Robertson, Daniel P. Sanders, Paul Seymour, Robin Thomas: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://people.math.gatech.edu/~thomas/FC/fourcolor.html"><i>The Four Color Theorem.</i></a> Georgia Institute of Technology, 13. November 1995; abgerufen am 7. Juli 2022.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Oda: <i>Lectures on Torus Embeddings and Applications.</i> 1978, <i>1.1 Algebraic tori.</i></span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Eric_Weisstein" title="Eric Weisstein">Eric W. Weisstein</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathworld.wolfram.com/HornTorus.html"><i>Horn Torus</i>.</a> In: <i><a href="MathWorld" title="MathWorld">MathWorld</a></i> (englisch). </span>
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